Essay, Research Paper: Intelligence

According to Merriam-Webster's dictionary, intelligence is described as the ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria. Many psychologists have their own view on what intelligence really is and the debate over its true definition is very controversial. Most agree, however, that intelligence measures our ability to adapt to challenges. Intelligence varies for every person. It has been proven that intelligence tests can accurately predict performance on the job, dropping out of high school, and even chances of divorcing. These tests are not always completely accurate though. Many times these tests can be culturally biased and provide inaccurate results. Some psychologists believe intelligence is influenced by genetics, others believe it is environment which influences intelligence. I personally believe a combination of environment, genetics, and health; determine a person's in intelligence.
Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists to create an intelligence test. He created this test so the French public school system could properly place their students. Overtime, the Binet test has been changed and modified by many other psychologists. Different types pf intelligence tests were also created. There are two major types of intelligence tests. Some are designed to test aptitude, while others are designed to predict achievement. The most widely used intelligence test today is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Revised (WAIS-R). This test gives an overall intelligence score, and also assesses verbal and performance scores. These tests, although prominent in intelligence testing, have flaws. A major flaw it posses is its culture bias. Many questions, which are asked seem to be a product of American culture and may not be understood by those from different backgrounds, resulting in wrong answers. Many concerns were first raised by the influential journalist Walter Lippmann, in a series of published debates with Lewis Terman, of Stanford University. Lippmann pointed out the superficiality of the questions, their possible cultural biases, and the risks of trying to determine a person's intellectual potential with a brief oral or paper-and-pencil measure. It has been shown on numerous tests that children from disadvantaged neighborhoods score lower on IQ tests than middle class families. William Labov studied this and concluded, "Inner-city children do not necessarily have inferior mothers, language, or experience, but the language, family style, and ways of living of inner-city children are significantly different from the standard culture of the classroom, and this difference is not always properly understood by teachers and psychologists."(Labov 1972). Also, this test is not very accurate for many immigrants. For example, H. Goddard tested 178 immigrants at Ellis Island and found "83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians, and 87% of Russians to be "˜feeble minding'"(Kleinmuntz, 1982, p. 333). Most of these immigrants did not fully understand English, and were at a disadvantage. Because of these injustices, Raymond B. Cattell and Florence Goodenough created a culture-free intelligence test. These tests contained very simple instructions and do not require extensive knowledge of math or science. Although culture-free tests help to decrease biases, they do not eliminate it. Socioeconomic factors also play a role in influencing performance on intelligence tests. Also, these tests are not always very accurate in predicting academic success, like other intelligence tests do.
A very controversial topic among psychologists dealing with intelligence today is the nature versus nurture theory. In the Confucian societies of East Asia individual differences in endowment are assumed to be modest, and differences in achievement are thought to be due largely to effort. In the West, however, many students of the subject believe that intelligence is inborn and one can do little to alter their intelligence. It seems very extreme to believe one theory completely, especially since no conclusive evidence has been found to support wither theory.
The nature theory suggests that intelligence is inherited. This theory states a person is born with a certain intelligence and that will not change. Studies of identical twins raised apart show strong evidence for the habitability intelligence. So, if one wants to predict someone's score on an intelligence test, the scores of the biological parents (even if the child has not had contact with them) are more likely to be similar than the scores of the adoptive parents. In the same way, the IQs of identical twins are more similar than the IQs of fraternal twins. If this hypothesis were true, than a child living in a rich area, who attended a great school would have the same IQ if he were attending an inner-city school and lived in a very poor area. But, studies seem to show the opposite occurs.
Environment is another major factor that is hypothesized to influence intelligence. Many times, people can be influenced by stereotypes. This is called stereotype vulnerability. People will believe they can only achieve so much, and only achieve that much. Home environment and styles of parenting can also influence intelligence. People will perform differently depending on how much they are encouraged and home and depending on the type of relationship they have with their family. Social class can also affect intelligence. People in higher social classes tend to achieve higher IQ scores. This maybe because of the opportunities provided to people in higher social classes. It's very difficult to understand why and how some of these environmental factors affect intelligence, but many psychologists believe they are a strong influence. Because of the complex workings of behavioral genetics and the difficulties in conducting valid experiments with human child-rearing, few defend the theory that intelligence is influenced by environmental factors rather than heritable, and some believe that we can not answer the question at all.
Personally, I believe that genetics account for a portion of intelligence. The studies between heredity and IQ scores suggest a strong relationship. So many traits are passed on through genes; I believe intelligence must also be one of them. But, I do not think that heredity is the sole determiner of intelligence. I have no doubt that environment plays a key role in determining intelligence. Depending on the way a person is raised, their attitude, and the opportunities given to them, their intelligence can be stimulated and changed. Health also plays a role in determining Intelligence, a person who is sick, mentally or physically, cannot accurately show their intelligence with the typical intelligence tests. One test cannot determine a person's true intelligence. Perhaps we will never really be able to accurately measure intelligence, and that raises the question, why should intelligence be tested? Is intelligence more important or achievement? In my opinion, intelligence means nothing, if a person doesn't use their intelligence to achieve something.