Essay, Research Paper: Women And Crime

INTRODUCTION TO WOMEN AND CRIME
The majority of crimes committed by females are not violent; in fact, the percentage of women incarcerated for violent offenses been steadily declining over the past two decades. While the percentage of crimes committed by women has always been significantly smaller than those of men, it is important to note the major increase in the number of women arrested for criminal activity (specifically non-violent) over the past few decades. In 1980, there were a little over 12,000 women incarcerated in our nation s prisons; that number increased to almost 80,000 by 1997. The rate of female imprisonment is rising more quickly than that of men; since 1985, the annual rate of growth in female imprisonment has averaged 11.1 percent, which is higher than the male growth rate of 7.6 percent. Additionally, over the past three decades, women s share of total imprisonment went from 3 percent in 1970 to 6.4% in 1997, showing that it has more than doubled over the past three decades. The rate of women s imprisonment is at a current historic high at 54 out of every 100,000 women, compared with 6 out of every 100,000 in 1925 (Chesney 1998).
Among social scientists, there are generally two observations that are associated with female criminality. As stated previously, the first and most widely known is that women have consistently maintained a lower rate of officially recorded crimes than males. In every category except prostitution, men commit crimes at much higher rates (Steffensmeier and Allan). The second is that this low rate of female criminality has not been adequately studied. Throughout most of our nation s history, mainstream criminology research and literature has virtually ignored the female criminal, and placed a far greater emphasis on the male offender (Steffensmeier and Allan). Feminists in the past have viewed this as another instance of females being viewed by social scientists as invisible. Recently, however, criminologists have begun to study the female offender in greater depth; over the past few decades, there have been more studies produced on the subject than in any other period in history.
Both male and female offenders mainly commit minor property and substance abuse crimes and there are far more of these types of offenses than more serious crimes like robbery and murder. The three most common crimes committed by both men and women in 1990 were DUI, larceny-theft and other except traffic, a category that includes public disorder, local ordinance violations and criminal mischief (Steffensmeier and Allen). The most prominent gender difference in reported arrests is the greater percentage of female offenders arrested for minor property crimes (28% of female arrests, compared to 13% of male) (Steffensmeier and Allan). There are more women involved in crime today than there have been at any time since the end of World War II. The surprising fact is that the increase has not been in traditional female crimes such as child abuse and prostitution, but rather in crimes like theft, fraud, embezzlement and forgery (Simon and Baxter). In 1960, women committed 17% of crimes involving larceny and fraud; by 1990, that number has increased to between 30% and 43%.
EXPLANAINING THE GENDER GAP
Now that we have gained a stronger understanding of the increase in women s criminality, uncertainty still remains as to why there is still such a significantly higher number of incarcerated males than females. Criminologists have universally recognized the low level of female crime rates in relation to male and there have been many proposed hypotheses regarding what accounts for this disparity. It is commonly known that the majority of men are perceived as physically stronger than women, and therefore more capable of committing violent crimes; however, societal norms, and the emotional strength and development must also be considered in the explanation of the gender gap that exists in criminology.
Gender norms upheld and dictated by the general society seem to have a significant impact on the lower crime rates of women. Femininity is routinely constituted within a number of discourses which circumscribe not only a woman s behavior but also the images which she has of herself and her relationships with other people (Carlen and Worrall 2). A woman s female experience is governed by several factors including her body, her mind and her social interaction. Femininity is often equated with self-control and independence; a normal woman is viewed as caring, nurturing, and selfless when it comes to the needs of others. Women receive positive sanctions for their capability to establish and maintain relationships and accept the obligations of the family; additionally, their identity is often largely defined based upon the prominent male figures in their lives (e.g. father, husband, etc.). Derivative identity constrains deviance on the part of women involved with conventional males but encourages the criminal involvements of those who become accomplices of husbands or boyfriends (Allen and Steffensmeier).
Qualities that are esteemed in the world of criminality basically contradict the most common female stereotypes such as weakness, submission, domestication and nurturance. For the most part, crime is much more stigmatizing for women than for men and it generally poses greater limits on the life chances of women. Females also have certain societal expectations regarding their physical appearance and sexuality, and these expectations play a role in the deviant roles that women have available to them. In addition, a female s fear of falling victim to crimes such as sexual assault diverts her from crime-likely locations like bars and nighttime streets (Allan and Steffensmeier 1996). In addition, women s life are profoundly influenced by the threat of physical violence, particularly domestic abuse and rape, in ways that men s are not so women are much more likely than men to modify their behavior because they fear victimization (Hurwitz and Smithey 1998).
Social Control Theory
Most of the empirical investigations of the past that assessed self-control theory failed to separate the analysis by gender. However, more recent studies have been conducted in the attempt to prove that social control is another factor that can account for the gender gap in criminology. One particular study outlined in the Journal of Research in Crime and Deliquency determined that there exists qualified support for the generality of self-control s effects across males and females (Burton, et al. 136). In A General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) state that crime requires not only the combination of low-self-control and opportunity, but that crime is easy to become involved in and therefore the opportunities for crime are ever-present (Burton, et al. 137). Given the greater number of constraints placed on females, their involvement in criminal activity probably depends more on females who have low self-control are able to gain access to illegal and illegitimate opportunities.
THE SOCIALIZATION/CHARACTERIZATION OF THE FEMALE OFFENDER
Moral development and socialization are also characteristics that vary between the two genders and can have an effect on their development of criminal careers. Since young girls are taught to learn the role of parent and nurturer, they are, in a sense, predisposed toward an ethic of care (Allan and Steffensmeier 1996). This ethic deters women from violence and other behavior that can cause harm to others. Young girls are not only socialized to be more open to the needs of others, but they are also taught to be afraid of losing or being separated from loved ones. These apprehensions hinder women from partaking in criminal activities that can lead to the injury of others.
On the other hand, young men are taught to be more status-seeking and to develop a view of the world and the workplace in which autonomy is of the utmost importance. The socialization of boys stresses autonomy, separation and independence (Chodorow as qtd. In Allan and Steffensmeier 1996) and they are taught both in school and at home to be more assertive and goal-oriented than girls. While females are taught to see strength in attachment and nurturance, males are expected to be more self-reliant. In addition, female misbehavior is more stringently monitored and corrected through negative stereotypes and sanctions (Simmons and Blyth qtd. In Allan and Steffensmeier 1996).
The greater likelihood of sexual deviance and infidelity among males can be largely attributed to differences in male and female sexuality and reproduction, particularly when combined with society s views on sexual taboos and titillations (Allan and Steffensmeier 1996). As a result, woman have increased opportunities for financial gain through sexual crimes such as prostitution or other illicit sexual activities. The possibilities that women have within this arena decrease their desire to engage in crimes typically committed by males. While prostitution is generally considered a female crime, it is still a criminal enterprise that is dominated and controlled by males. Pimps and businessmen who employ female prostitutes almost always have control over the prostitutes working conditions. (Allan and Steffensmeier 1996).
Gender norms, social control and other factors all discourage and inhibit women s access to criminal opportunities and careers. For example, women are less likely to be employed in truck driving, carpentry and other fields that provide opportunities for illegitimate activities like drug dealing and theft. The stereotypical jobs that women are employed in generally offer them the opportunity to make commissions off sales; this makes them much more susceptible to employer surveillance and being caught committing petty crimes like fraud or embezzlement (Allans and Steffensmeier 1996).
Lastly, considerable differences in crimes largely stems from differences in the motivations and risk-taking styles of men and women. Women take greater risks to sustain valued relationships, whereas males take greater risks for reasons of status or competitive advantage (Allans and Steffensmeier 1996). For example, women compose approximately 90% of jobs that provide them with the opportunities to be involved in embezzlement such as lower level bookkeepers and bank tellers. Women only constitute less than half of all auditors or accountants. Therefore, when women participate in the crime of embezzlement, it is most often to protect their families and personal relationships, while male embezzlers often do so to protect their status.
Another interesting characteristic of female offenders involves their abuse histories. The Bureau of Justice Statistics recently conducted a national study on women in prison and determined that women have higher rates of physical and sexual abuse than their male counterparts. Forty-three percent of the surveyed women reported they had been abused at least once before their current admission to prison (Chesney 1998). The comparable number of men who reported abuse was much smaller at 12.2 percent. One-third of all women in prison claimed that the abuse began when they were young girls and continued when they became adults. While 10.7 percent of males also reported some type of abuse at a young age, very rarely did this abuse continue into adulthood.
Strain Theory
Traditional sociological theories can be useful in describing how the socialization and expectations for men and women can account for the differences in their crime rates. For example, Merton s strain theory emphasizes the fact that there are certain goals that are strongly emphasized by society; however, not everyone has equal access to the legitimate means of achieving these goals. For the lower-class male, his goal is to make it, or gain money, social status and power ideally through legitimate means; however, if necessary and if given the opportunity, he will often turn to illegitimate endeavors. The middle class female has the same aspirations; however her legitimate means is often expanded to include marriage. On the street and in sociologists theories, a woman s social position is measured (literally and figuratively) by first her father s accomplishments and then her husband s (Gora 108).
Control Theory
Hirschi s control theory postulates that commitment to conventional activities and conventional others is the major social determinant of commitment to legitimate behavior utility (Gora 110). When an individual s commitment to conventional activities and others outweighs the importance of the goal to be achieved through criminal behavior, it literally can control criminal behavior. For female, middle-class adults, the conservative family-home-children model is very convincing. Without such a model, a woman can be said to be invisible in the social world (Gora 111). With it, however, a successful life can be taken away from the female s involvement in social activities and her ability to vicariously enjoy the achievements of her children. If it is a woman s goal to achieve these conventional middle-class values, then it is much easier for her to do so through legitimate means, rather than through criminal involvement. For the lower-class male, however, this middle-class image of adult life almost entirely contradicts the goal imposed on him by society to make something of himself. In fact, material success and position may be more readily achieved through criminal behavior than through legitimate behavior. (Gora 111). Conclusively, middle-class men and women are more likely to accept the conventional model of adult life and less likely to engage in criminal behavior than lower-class men, for whom the pay-offs from this model may not be as real (Gora 111).
THE INCREASE OF WOMEN IN PRISON
In 1980, there were around 12,000 women in U.S. prisons; by 1997 that number had increased to around 80,000. Is this significant increase in women s criminal imprisonment a direct indicator that women s crime is becoming an increasing problem that is spiraling out of control? (Chesney 1998). Empirical data actually gives little evidence of this; for instance, between 1987 and 1996, the number of adult women arrested increased by 31.4 percent, while the number of women in prison jumped by 159 percent. While the media seems to emphasize hyper-violent female offenders, the number of women incarcerated for violent crimes in state prisons has actually declined from 48.9 percent in 1979 to 27.6 percent in 1997 (Chesney 1998). A recent study by the Bureau of Justice Statistics determined that for the male prison population, the growth in violent offenders has been the most significant, while for the females, drug offenders have grown the most dramatically.
In 1979, one in ten women in prison was there for drug offenses; today, drug offenders account for over a third of the female prison population (Chesney 1998). What accounts for this increase? Many have concluded that the increase in incarcerated females is due to various policy changes in the criminal justice system, rather than to a change in the seriousness of women s crime. Obviously, penalties for drug offenses have increased over the years; however, there have also been many sentencing reform initiatives that serve to reduce inequalities in race, class and gender. Combined with increased gender-blind sentencing, another factor that can account for the rise in women s sentencing could be the increased surveillance of women s behavior while on parole; for example, in California in 1993, approximately one-third of all females incarcerated were there on parole violations that were largely drug-related.
Another hypothesis to account for the increase in arrested females is the fact that many of the illegitimate opportunities that are open to women are the types of crimes that are more apt to be investigated by the police. These types of offenses include con games and welfare frauds. Most men, on the other hand, are given the opportunities to participate in more discreet white-collar crimes like false advertising, product defects and occupationally oriented frauds that are far less likely to be detected (Smart 24). Traditionally, due to the smaller number of women in positions of authority, and sexual discrimination in employment, these safer types of white-collar crime are not as readily available to women. As a result, women have been restricted to the more risky, petty offenses (Smart 24).
Heidensohn s Characterization of the Female Criminal
I feel that criminologist Francis Heidensohn adequately describes the contemporary condition of female criminology through his characterization of the female criminal. According him, there are four major characteristics of many female offenders that are worth commenting on. They are: economic rationality, heterogeneity of their offenses, fear and impact of deviant stigma and the experience of double deviance and double jeopardy (Carlen and Worrall 17).
Economic Rationality
Traditionally, female criminals have been portrayed as peculiarly evil and depraved, and as unstable and irrational. Often their irrationality is linked to their biological and their psychological nature (Heidensohn qtd. in Carlen and Worrall 18). Modern sociologists made the mistake of assuming that the nature of female deviance was mainly sexual. However, it is more accurate to say that many women offenders are actually more economically motivated than previously believed. While not every female offender is only motivated by need when committing a crime, it is vital to rethink the motivations in terms of economics, and not always in terms of passion or irrationality.
Heterogeneity of Offenses
Recent studies confirm that what distinguishes the pattern of female of male criminality is its frequency, scope and seriousness, not essential qualitative differences (Heidensohn qtd. in Carlen and Worrall). The fact that women do not commit violent crimes as often as men does not have to do with innate feminine characteristics; rather, it is a direct result of differential opportunity structures, and different types of socialization and social control (Carlen and Worrall 19).
Deviant Stigma
. most women perceive themselves and are perceived as being damaged or spoiled by criminalisation. Of course, this applies to male offenders as well; however, since female criminals are rarer than male, and because their crimes are often over dramatized by the media, the stigma that goes along with female criminality is far greater.
Double Deviance
Heidensohn believes that oftentimes, women offenders are seen as doubly deviant because not only have they deviated by committing a crime, but they are also seen as breaking social rules and as being unfeminine or unnatural. This double deviance can lead to paternalism, protectiveness and excessive punishment for women offenders (Heidensohn qtd. in Carlen and Worrall).
CONCLUSIONS
Females commit fewer crimes than men because female offenders receive a greater stigma from society at large. Additionally, gender norms, attachment to others and expectations inhibit them from adapting criminal lifestyles as well. A woman s means to join a higher social class is largely based upon her personal characteristics and ability to attain a husband of a high position. Obviously, women are more likely to utilize this more legitimate means of increasing social status, and less likely to attain this goal through illegitimate or criminal means like through prostitution or blackmail. Strain theory can also be used to explain why middle-class girls have smaller crime rates than lower-class boys. The middle-class girl has increased opportunities to achieve her material goals and social position through legitimate, not criminal means; the lower-class boy has fewer legitimate opportunities available to him and therefore must often resort to illegitimate means. While the role of the female in society has become less submissive than in the past, and women are beginning to be dominated less by the male gender, and take on roles as individuals, there still exists a tremendous gender inequality in almost every aspect of society. Until this inequality no longer exists, the societal and gender norms that still remain will continue to govern the percentage of crimes committed by women. However, the substantial achievement in the study and explanation of female crime must be applauded, as gender has been viewed in the way it should be: as a crucial variable associated in the study of criminology.