With all art movements in history, one may see that each movement is either influenced by another, or is a reaction to the preceding movement. The latter is especially representative of modern architecture. The architecture of the twentieth century is generally characterized by its use of industrial materials principally steel, glass, and reinforced concrete. In modern architecture, needs of modern society are emphasised. These needs include town planning and low cost, often prefabricated, housing for the middle class. Another concept associated with modern architecture is unornamented geometrical structures. The architecture of the nineteenth century, known as neoclassicism or eclectic architecture, was often highly decorative with excessive ornamentation. The term eclecticism and neoclassicism can be defined as a style of architecture, which borrows from the styles of the past. The neoclassical architects of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries did not make use of the new building materials being made available, and also disregarded the need of town planning and adequate, affordable housing for the working class. Modern architecture is a reaction to nineteenth and early twentieth century architecture. The Industrial Revolution, which began in England in about 1760 brought about radical changes in every level of civilization. The heavy industry brought many new building materials such as cast iron, steel, large expanses of glass and reinforced concrete.1 The architects of the nineteenth century did not consider these architectural materials, and were primarily used by engineers. Architectural design at this time was based on past historical styles and precedents. Since there were no precedents for these materials, they were not used.2 Modern architects felt that new methods and materials, as well as new functional needs, demanded a fresh approach to structure and form.3 In his architecture, Frank Lloyd Wright sought to develop what he labeled organic architecture. Organic architecture is defined as, "architecture that is appropriate to time, appropriate to place, and appropriate to man."4 By appropriate to time, what Wright meant was that a twentieth century building should make use of the materials and methods available at the time that it is designed. In his buildings such as the Robie House, (Fig. 1 and 2 ) and later "Fallingwater", (Fig. 3 and 4) Wright experimented with new materials such as steel and reinforced concrete. (Fig. 5) With these materials Wright was able to cantilever roofs and floor slabs, (Fig. 6 ) and open up the interior of the house. (Fig. 7) In a break from the tradition of the closed, box like houses of the time, Wright eliminated walls between rooms - what he called the destruction of the box 5 . He discovered that the best way to open a closed in space was to place windows in the corners, where traditionally posts were needed to support the roof above. By the use of the cantilever, supporting columns were set back from the corners. (Fig. 8) He was able to do this by using the new methods in construction. Wright, by using this technique, emphasized his philosophy of organic architecture, which as stated earlier, is architecture appropriate to place meaning that a building should be related to its site in all aspects of its design. Wright sought to associate the house with its site by extension and emphasis on horizontal planes parallel to the flat landscape, the materials used in its construction, and also by opening up the house to its surroundings by the use of large expanses of glass. Wright felt that the organic philosophy of architecture was a truly modern one. Wright s use of modern materials and open spaces had an immeasurable effect on the work of the European architects due to the publication of a portfolio of his in 1910.6 The use of modern materials and the machine can be seen even more distinctly in the work of Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier heavily criticized eclecticism and wrote extensively on his ideas for the use of modern methods and materials in the journal L Esprit Nouveau 7 . According to Le Corbusier in his book Towards a New Architecture, first published in 1923, a house is defined as "a machine for living"8 . He is not suggesting a desire for mechanized living, but rather an admiration for the clean precise shapes of machinery. Le Corbusier employed the new technology of reinforced concrete, steel, and large expanses of glass in what he termed the Five Points of a New Architecture . The Villa Savoye (Fig. 9, 10 ) is considered to be the perfect example of Le Corbusier s philosophy. The five points included: the use of reinforced concrete pillars which would raise the building of the ground, the use of a roof garden created by a reinforced concrete slab, the free plan made possible by using widely spaced supporting columns which freed up the interior, the utilization of the long window which allows a substantial amount of natural light into the interior, and the free facade. The Villa Savoye is raised off the ground by reinforced concrete columns, and a roof garden is constructed on top of the structure by a reinforced concrete slab. The plan of the interior is free and is able to be divided as the family requires it to be; therefore dictating the use of the long window and the free facade which are created by the needs of the interior. This means that the interior rooms, however divided, would direct how the exterior was to look. Since the exterior walls were no longer needed for their load bearing responsibilites, the wall was considered nothing more than an insulating membrane. The ideas brought forth by Frank Lloyd Wright, and later Le Corbusier were revolutionary for their time. In Victorian architecture ( related to the time and styles of Queen Victoria s reign in England in the late nineteenth century9) structures were built with materials considered to be old-fashioned by the modern architects. The rooms of buildings, and residences in particular are closed off by doors and walls, needed to support the building. With the new materials made available to them, twentieth century architects were able to create buildings that were of their time, and appropriate to the needs and functions of its inhabitants. The emphasis placed on the needs of twentieth century society by modern architects is another sign of rejection of nineteenth century architecture. After 1800, increased growth due to prosperity, and as a consequence of industrialization, cities spread rapidly.10 In 1860, the United States had over nine cities with over 100, 000 inhabitants and by 1910 there were fifty. The architecture of the nineteenth century failed almost completely in the area of town planning . The architects of the time had a tendency to build buildings in isolation, disregarding their significance to the design of the town itself.11 The fate of a town was left to chance, causing it to grow in unconnected single phases. As a reaction to this, architects of the twentieth century were interested in the idea of town planning. With the rapid growth of cities land owners provided cramped, badly lit tenement houses for the many people moving into the towns, from the country. These conditions made it necessary to rethink the possibilities of affordable housing for the new middle class . Le Corbusier insisted the reorganization of the city was the first task of modern architecture.12 His ideas for urban planning can be seen as early as 1922 in his 'A City of 3 Million Inhabitants'(Fig. 11,12) . Le Corbusier envisioned constructing high rise apartment towers on urban land. Therefore opening up space for continuous park areas and making it possible to separate pedestrian traffic from that of the automobile. 13 By doing so, he is responding to the needs of the growing population and overcrowded urban centres of the nineteenth century. Le Corbusier's influence can be seen in urban renewal projects for New York City, Paris, and Barcelona. During the economic depression, Frank Lloyd Wright found himself without many commissions and devoted himself to city planning and the development of what he called Usonian houses. Wright s plan for "Broadacre City" (Fig. 13, 14) was a reply to Le Corbusier's plan, and is quite different. Wright's scheme seems utopian compared to Le Corbusier s in that every family has their own acre of land and enjoy freedom and space combing the best of rural and urban spaces.14 Wright himself hated urban cities for their unsociable, dehumanizing aspects. The Usonian house (named for the compound of the United States of America and Utopia) became the basic residential unit for Broadacre City (Fig. 15, 16). The Usonian houses were prefabricated homes that would cost about $5500 including architect's fee. The homes were designed to be affordable to middle class families with lower incomes. The ideas of affordable hosing projects and town planning are both new ideas to the twentieth century. The architects of the nineteenth century had evidently disregarded the needs of society as seen in the fact that much of their towns and cities became overcrowded and dehumanizing. Modern architects clearly reacted to the urban communities, which had become overcrowded, and did not provide necessary housing for the large middle class. Perhaps the largest reaction to eclecticism, and nineteenth century architecture, came in regards to ornament. A major impact on the esthetics of American, as well as European, architecture in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was the World's Columbian Exposition held in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. The design of the temporary exhibition buildings were neoclassical in style. Consequently many architects returned to Greco-Roman tradition. As a result, many public and private buildings, including skyscrapers and private rsidences, were given grand, classical facades with columns, pediments and other traditional architectural details.15 (Fig. 17 ) The New York Public Library is an example of neoclassical architecture. (Fig. 18) In neoclassical architecture ornamentation is applied in a facade like treatment where it has nothing to do with the function of the building at all. As a reaction to eclectic architecture, modern architects sought to rid their designs of any decadent or insignificant decoration. ...all major figures in the modern movement stood squarely against ornament as it was traditionally known in architecture. Since all traditions rely in some way on ornament, architecture without ornament meant architecture that did not rely on tradition. 16

Any ornamentation used in the designs of Frank Lloyd Wright was never applied to the building. Decoration in his architecture is related to ornament solely as deriving from or expressing the spirit of the mass - an organic system of ornamentation. It is not based on past historical styles, but rather on organic form. Organic form as Wright uses is not something taken literally from nature and used in a natural way, but rather that which is taken from nature, used to inspires the artist to see beyond those natural forms, to a divine form that lay behind it and is more natural than nature itself.17 Wright was aware of the esthetic potential of the machine and modern mass production, yet maintained a high regard for ornament, citing that it, adds another dimension of beauty to architecture. 18 This is an important factor in the differences of Wright and the Europeans. Architects like Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier saw ornamentation as inappropriate to the use of the machine. Wright said, The machine should build the building, but it is not necessary for that reason to build as though the building, too, were a machine. 19 Modern architects were enthralled by the new forms and possibilities of the machine age, The aesthetic qualities of the machine, which include simplicity and geometry, became desirable to the European Modernists, and functionalism became the practical reason that they used to explain their aesthetic preferences.20 Perhaps the best example of how the modernists viewed ornament is in the German Pavilion (Fig. 19,20) designed by Mies van der Rohe for the International Exposition in Barcelona, Spain. The pavilion is more architectural space than structure 21 . The only adornments of the pavilion are two reflecting pools, a sculpture by Gerg Kolbe, furniture designed by the architect, the texture and colour of the marble walls and the perfect craftsmanship of the building s form and structure.22 The German Pavilion is considered to be the epitome of Mies van der Rohe s famous dictum, less is more . Esthetic qualities, by Mies van der Rohe, are considered to be far more greater in designs which are reduced to their basic geometrical shapes, rather than highly decorative and false designs. The concepts developed largely by the Europeans during the 1920s and 1930s led to what is generally referred to as the International Style, called so because it is technical rather than geographical in its design and may be applied in numerous locations. The simplicity and economy of the International Style was a desirable alternative to the nonessential ornamentation and lavish use of space characteristic of eclectic architecture. In modern architecture ornament was no longer applied to the structure. The geometric patterns of steel and open beams became positive stylistic factors, making colour and surface texture important esthetic elements of the building and therefore there is no need for any unnecessary decoration .23 The rejection of eclectic ornamental details by the modern architects is a distinctive feature in twentieth century architecture, and is common in the work of all major figures associated with the movement. The architecture of the twentieth century is clearly a series of reactions to neoclassicism. Modern architects sought to create a new modern architecture through the use of new methods and materials available at the time, by placing importance on the needs of contemporary society and by their rejection of the excessive ornamentation of the preceding neoclassicist movement. Although different in their own ways, each of the major figures of the modern movement were primarily concerned with the same idea: that architecture based on tradition and reverence for the past, was inadequate for their time. Bibliography Besset, Maurice. Le Corbusier. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated, 1964. Brolin, Brent . The Failure of Modern Architecture . Toronto: Van Norstrand Reinhold Company. 1976. Frank Lloyd Wright. Directed by Ken Burns. PBS Television, 1998. Costantino, Maria. The Life and Works of Frank Lloyd Wright, London: PRC Publishing Limited. 1998. Fitch, James. American Building: The Historical Forces That Shaped It, 2nd Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966. Hoag, Edwin and Joy Hoag. Masters of Modern Architecture, New York: Boobs-Merrill Company Incorporated, 1977. Hoffman, Hubert. Town Planning. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated, 1964. Hoppen, Donald. The Seven Ages of Frank Lloyd Wright: A New Appraisal, Santa Barbara: Capra Press, 1993. Mendelowitz, Daniel. A History of American Art, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Incorporated, 1960. Pehnt, Wolfgang. Introduction. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated, 1964. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright: Master Builder , New York: Universe Publishing, 1997. Preble, Duane and Sarah Preble. Artforms, 4th Edition. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1989. Le Corbusier. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1996. Le Corbusier. Microsoft Encarta, Funk and Wagnalls Corporation, 1994 Modern Architecture . http://tqjunior.advanced.org/3786/modern_architecture.html (17 Nov. 1997). Bibliography Besset, Maurice. Le Corbusier. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, 1964. Brolin, Brent . The Failure of Modern Architecture .Toronto: Van Norstrand Reinhold Company. 1976. Frank Lloyd Wright. Directed by Ken Burns. PBS Television, 1998. Costantino, Maria. The Life and Works of Frank Lloyd Wright, London: PRC Publishing Limited. 1998. Fitch, James. American Building: The Historical Forces That Shaped It, 2nd Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966. Hoag, Edwin and Joy Hoag. Masters of Modern Architecture, New York: Boobs-Merrill Company Incorporated, 1977. Hoffman, Hubert. Town Planning. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, 1964. Hoppen, Donald. The Seven Ages of Frank Lloyd Wright: A New Appraisal, Santa Barbara: Capra Press, 1993. Mendelowitz, Daniel. A History of American Art, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Incorporated, 1960. Pehnt, Wolfgang. Introduction. Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, 1964. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright: Master Builder , New York: Universe Publishing, 1997. Preble, Duane and Sarah Preble. Artforms, 4th Edition. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1989. Le Corbusier. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1996. Le Corbusier. Microsoft Encarta, 1994. Modern Architecture . http://tqjunior.advanced.org/3786/modern_architecture.html (17 Nov. 1998). Fig. 1- Robie House, 1909-Exterior example of the cantilevered roof Fig. 2-Robie House interior plan Fig. 3- Fallingwater, 1936- Example of the use of reinforced concrete to cantilever terraces andliving areas. Fig. 4- Plans of Fallingwater. Fig. 5- Diagram illustrating the reinforced concrete system Fig. 6-Diagram illustrating a cantilever system. Fig. 7- Illustration of the interior of the Coonley Residence- demonstratingthe use of the open plan Fig. 8- Plan illustrating the structure which was made possible by the use of new methods and material Fig. 9- Villa Savoye, 1929 Fig. 10- Villa Savoye Interior Fig. 11- Illustration for Le Corbusier s A City for 3,000,000 Inhabitants Fig. 12- Model for A City for 3,000,000 Inhabitants Fig. 13- Rendering of Broadacre City Fig. 14-Plan for Broadacre City Fig. 15- Jacob s House-First Usonian House Fig. 16-Plan for Jacob s House Fig. 17- Examples of Greco-Roman elements used in eclecticism. Fig. 18- New York Public Library Fig. 19- German Pavilion, exterior Fig. 20- German Pavilion, interior Notes 1 Modern Architecture . http://tqjunior.advanced.org/3786/modern_architecture.html (17 Nov. 1997). 2 Brent C. Brolin. The Failure of Modern Architecture (Toronto: Van Norstrand Reinhold Company. 1976) 142. 3 Duane Preble and Sarah Preble. Artforms, 4th Edition ( New York: Harper and Row Publishers. 1989) 230. 4 Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. Frank Lloyd Wright: Master Builder , (New York: Universe Publishing. 1997) 7. 5 Edwin Hoag and Joy Hoag. Masters of Modern Architecture, (New York: Boobs-Merrill Company Incorporated. 1977) 14. 6 James Fitch.Ameican Building: The Historical Forces That Shaped It, 2nd Edition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1966) 220. 7 Maurice Besset. Le Corbusier. Encyclopedia of Modern Architeture, ( New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated. 1964 ) 170. 8 Le Corbusier. Microsoft Encarta, ( Funk and Wagnalls Corporation. 1994). 9 Hoag and Hoag. 202. 10 Hubert Hoffman. Town Planning. Encyclopedia of Modern Architeture, ( New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated. 1964 ) 295. 11 Wolfgang Pehnt. Introduction. Encyclopedia of Modern Architeture, ( New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated. 1964 ) 10. 12 Le Corbusier. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, (Grolier Electronic Publishing. 1996) . 13 Besset. 172. 14 Donald Hoppen. The Seven Ages of Frank Lloyd Wright: A New Appraisal, (Santa Barbara: Capra Press. 1993) 81. 15 Maria Costantino. The Life and Works of Frank Lloyd Wright, (London: PRC Publishing Limited. 1998) 25-26. 16 Brolin. 25. 17 Frank Lloyd Wright. Directed by Ken Burns. PBS Television, 1998. 18 Daniel Mendelowitz. A History of American Art, ( New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Incorporated. 1960) 504-506. 19 Hoag and Hoag. 14. 20 Brolin. 33. 21 Hoag and Hoag. 12. 22 Hoag and Hoag. 127. 23 Mendelowitz. 512. Modern Architecture James SwainHWM OA1